History Online - Middle Ages
[an error occurred while processing this directive]Middle Ages
It was Renaissance humanists who gave the name Middle Ages to the period in Western history between the end of the Roman Empire and their own time, which they believed was a rebirth of the civilization of Greece and Rome. They considered the Middle Ages to be a period of barbarism and intellectual darkness and the term, "The Dark Ages," was sometimes used to refer to the entire Middle Ages.
For several hundred years, from about the first to around the fifth century AD, Rome was the greatest power on Earth, ruling Britain and the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. However, in northern Europe, there were fierce tribes that were only held at bay by the Romans. Around 400 AD, the Roman Empire began to weaken and the northern tribes swept across the continent of Europe and plundered the city of Rome. The Roman Empire collapsed and was gradually replaced by many small kingdoms ruled by a strong warrior.
The Early Middle Ages saw the collapse of the Roman Empire, successive invasions of barbarian tribes and the triumph of Christianity. The remains of the Roman Empire in western Europe were broken up into barbarian kingdoms, until the Frankish king, Charlemagne, was crowned emperor of the West by the pope on Christmas Day, 800. By 900 the frontiers of western Europe were being shattered from the north by Vikings, from the south by Muslims, and from the east by Magyars. The Carolingian and Ottonian Empires [AD 750 to 1000] are included in this period.
In the tenth century western Europeans, organized according to the rules of Feudalism, were able to drive off the invaders and gradually to take the offensive. The economy and the society rebounded while the church was reformed and revitalized. Romanesque art developed into Gothic and great works of literature like the Song of Roland and the Romance of the Rose were written. Rediscovery of the works of Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle, provided the spark for scholasticism the great philosophic system of the Middle Ages.
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Europe suffered great famines, the catastrophic Black Death and the Hundred Years' War. Those who survived, however, often had a better life, especially the peasants of Western Europe, who won both greater freedom and prosperity. The nobles built palaces instead of castles, and the newly rich townspeople aped the nobility. The classic style dominated Italian art while the north of Europe developed Flamboyant Gothic. Among the great writers of the period were Giovanni Boccaccio and Dante Alighieri in Italy; Geoffrey Chaucer and Thomas Malory in England; and Guillaume de Machaut and Francois Villon in France.
In the year 637 the armies of Islam lead by the Caliph Omar conquered the city of Jerusalem, the center of the Christian world and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. The city's Muslim masters exhibited a certain level of religious tolerance. No new churches were to be built and crosses could not be publicly displayed outside church buildings, but the pilgrims were allowed to continue their treks to the holiest shrines of Christendom (in lieu of a toll). The situation remained stable for over 400 years. Then, in the latter part of the 11th century, the Turks swarmed westward out of Central Asia overrunning all that lay in their path. Jerusalem fell to them in 1076. The atmosphere of tolerance practiced by the followers of Omar was replaced by vicious attacks on the Christian pilgrims and on their sacred shrines in the Holy City. Reports of robberies, beatings, killings, degradation of holy sites and the kidnapping for ransom of the city's patriarch made their way back to Europe. To the Europeans the Holy Land was now in the smothering grip of the Infidel and something must be done.
The name of author the following eyewitness account is unknown, but it is considered a reliable description published before 1101:
Society in the Middle Ages was divided into distinct classes each with rigid customs, obligations and a strict etiquette on how a member would interact with those of higher and lower classes. Costume and speech assisted in maintaining class distinctions.
For many years, Europe was without the luxuries and riches that had marked the height of Rome. Many centuries later, a new interest in learning would mark the beginning of the Renaissance. The thousand years between is called the Middle Ages or the Medieval period. This period began and ended for different countries at different times across Europe. It also affected different areas of the continent in different ways.
The northern tribes did not stamp out learning completely, only momentarily set it back. The Catholic Church was already a powerful institution at the end of the Roman Empire and it continued to be the unifying force between the many small kingdoms that would become Europe. The Church salvaged much from the ruins of the ancient world and became one of the centers of learning during the Middle Ages. The people of the Middle Ages had a rich culture and produced many advances in art, literature, science, and medicine and paved the way for the ideas that would become the beginning of the Renaissance.
The northern tribes, such as the Goths and the Vandals, were savage fighters. As they migrated into Europe, each man wanted to have his own land and used whatever force was necessary to obtain it. The strongest of these men made himself king and took the largest portion of the land he had conquered. The remaining land was divided among his chief followers, with the condition that they pay him taxes and fight for him. In turn, these men divided the land they had been given by the king among other men with the same conditions they had agreed to. The dividing continued down to the smallest landholder.
As a result, every man (except the king) owed something to a stronger man. The stronger man was the lord, and the weaker man was his vassal. The lord might also be the vassal of a yet more powerful lord.
Since Medieval philosophy was based on faith, spiritual values and miracles, a new environment was needed that would transport the participant to another world [that of the spirit]. This shift from concentration on the natural world to the spiritual world meant that new verbal, visual and auditory means of expression had to be created. The rise of monasticism, feudalism and the emergence of nationalism in the form of distinct monarchies occurred during the Middle Ages. Within the thousand years of the Middle Ages, historians have recognized subperiods; the Early Middle Ages, from about 550 to 900 or 1000; the High Middle Ages, to about 1300; and the Later Middle Ages comprising the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
In response, Pope Urban II called a conference at the city of Clermont, France in 1095, concluding the eight days of deliberation with one of history's most influential speeches. Mounting a lofty scaffold, the Pope exhorted the assembled multitude to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of the Infidel and assured them that God would absolve them from any sin associated with the venture. His words feel on receptive ears as the crowd responded with cries of "It is the will of God!", "It is the will of God!" The Crusades had begun.
The First Crusade was the most successful in that it actually accomplished what it set out to do - conquer Jerusalem. But it had its problems. Responding to the Pope's challenge, thousands of peasants rallied to the cause motivated by a combination of religious fervor and the desire to escape their squalled condition at home. Led by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless the hapless rabble marched across Europe to Constantinople, only to be slaughtered by the Turks soon after crossing the Bosphorus into Asia Minor.
In the meantime the nobility of Europe raised an army of thousands that made its way through various routes and with much mishap to Constantinople. Unfortunately, many of these crusaders could not wait until they met the Muslims on the field of battle to demonstrate their religious zeal. As they progressed through Europe many Jewish communities became the target of their wrath and thousands were massacred.
In the spring of 1097, a host of over 100,000 crusaders joined forces on the eastern side of the Bosphorus. The combined army then fought its way along the coast of the Mediterranean reaching the gates of Jerusalem in June of 1099.
Capture of the Christian "Navel of the World"
"Exulting with joy we reached the city of Jerusalem on Tuesday, June 6, and we besieged it in a wonderful manner. Robert of Normandy besieged it on the northern side, near the church of St. Stephen, the first martyr, who was there stoned for Christ's name. Next to him was Robert, Count of Flanders. Duke Godfrey and Tancred carried on the siege on the west. The Count of St. Gilles operated from the south, on Mount Sion, near the church of St. Mary, the Lord's mother, where the Lord supped with His disciples. . . .
During the siege we were unable to find any bread to buy for about the space of ten days, until a messenger came from our ships; also we were afflicted by great thirst, so much so that in fear and terror we had to water our horses and other animals six miles away. The fountain of Siloam, at the foot of Mount Sion, sustained us, but the water was sold among us at a high price. . . . We sewed up skins of oxen and buffaloes in which we brought the water six miles. The water we drank from such receptacles was fetid, and what with foul water and barley bread we daily suffered great affliction and distress. Moreover the Saracens hid near all the springs and wells and ambushed our men, killing and mutilating them and driving off the animals into their dens and caverns.
Then our leaders planned to attack the city with machines, in order to enter it and adore the sepulchre of our Saviour. They made two wooden towers and many other machines. . . . Day and night on the fourth and fifth days of the week we vigorously attacked the city on all sides; but before we made our assault the bishops and priests persuaded all by their preaching and exhortation that a procession should be made round Jerusalem to God's honour, faithfully accompanied by prayers, alms and fasting. Early on the sixth day we attacked the city on all sides and could do nothing against it. We were all surprised and alarmed. Then, at the approach of the hour at which our Lord Jesus Christ deigned to undergo the passion of the cross for us, our knights in one of the towers fought bravely, amongst them Duke Godfrey and his brother, Count Eustace.
One of our knights, Letholdus by name, climbed on to the wall of the city. When he reached the top, all the defenders of the city quickly fled along the walls and through the city. Our men followed and pursued them, killing and hacking, as far as the temple of Solomon, and there there was such a slaughter that our men were up to their ankles in the enemy's blood. . . .
The emir who commanded the tower of David surrendered to the Count [of St. Gilles] and opened the gate where pilgrims used to pay tribute. Entering the city, our pilgrims pursued and killed the Saracens up to the temple of Solomon. There the Saracens assembled and resisted fiercely all day, so that the whole temple flowed with their blood. At last the pagans were overcome and our men seized many men and women in the temple, killing them or keeping them alive as they saw fit. On the roof of the temple there was a great crowd of pagans of both sexes, to whom Tancred and Gaston de Beert gave their banners (to provide them with protection). Then the crusaders scattered throughout the city, seizing gold and silver, horses and mules, and houses full of all sorts of goods. Afterwards our men went rejoicing and weeping for joy to adore the sepulchre of our Saviour Jesus and there discharged their debt to Him. . . .
On the eighth day after the capture of the city they elected Duke Godfrey prince of the city, to fight the pagans and protect the Christians. Also, on the day of St. Peter in chains, they elected as Patriarch a most wise and honourable man, named Arnulf. The city was captured by the Christians on Friday, July 15."
The Court:
The courts of princes and the higher nobility (e.g. dukes, earls and barons) were the natural centers for the social life of the noble class. The great feasts of the Christian year: Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost were celebrated with great pageantry and ceremony. The gathering for military expeditions, whether it be war, tourney, or Crusade began at the courts and it was to the prince's court that the nobles were summoned for judgment in their own cases or those of their peers and to which they came to give counsel to their lords. Because they fought exclusively on horseback, the nobles became the cavalry, the chivalry of Europe. Prowess, loyalty, generosity and courtesy were the basic values of their social code.
Monasteries:
Outside the walls of the towns lay the monasteries. Monasticism came to western Europe in the fourth century, and many people had fled to the cloisters before Saint Benedict of Nursia founded Monte Casino in southern Italy in 529. The rule of Saint Benedict was to spread throughout Latin Christendom, its only real competitor being the monasticism of Ireland where the monks spent their summers in missionary activity far away from their cloisters.
A new monastery founded in 910 at Cluny in French Burgundy became the mother house of a reformed order that spread throughout Europe. In its turn it was succeeded by more radical reformers like the Cistercians or the regular canons under a rule attributed to Saint Augustine. In the thirteenth century the friars (Dominicans and Franciscans) abandoned the cloister entirely and with the healing and teaching orders of brothers and sisters entered into the service of the world, although still committed to the vows of obedience, poverty and chastity.
Monasteries became the principal repositories of learning, including virtually all the existing classical Latin authors and the Fathers of the Church. Knowledge was increased from the tenth century onward by contact with the Arab scholars in Spain, Sicily and North Africa and with the Greeks in Constantinople. More of the works of Aristotle were discovered along with their Arabic commentators; Greek and Arabic scientific works were translated for western use; and above all, the Arabic mathematics including Hindu notation was imported to Europe.
The new learning was brought into the classical curriculum taught in the schools: the seven liberal arts divided into the trivium of grammar, rhetoric and logic, and the quadrivium of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Monastic schools primarily taught young monks. Boys aspiring to be secular clergy were taught first in parish and then cathedral schools, some of which became famous and attracted numerous students. Although there was some organized female education in convents, most of the education given to girls was received at home. As more and more students became concentrated in one place, there was demand for more teachers. In time a guild of teachers at Paris, a guild of students at Bologna, and a guild of doctors at Salerno called themselves universities and began to establish statutes and demand liberties from church and state alike, thus sowing the seeds of academic freedom. Soon other universities were founded at which a young man could become a master of arts and receive a license to teach. Or if he was impelled to further learning, he could go on to study theology, law or medicine. In the Later Middle Ages students attended the universities for their intellectual and social life, whether or not they wished to become clergy or to teach or to practice a profession. This emphasis on knowledge for its own sake was a central strand of the Humanism that led to the Renaissance.
Weddings
Weddings during medieval times saw the origin of several modern traditions and customs. There was more to the Middle Ages than just castles, chivalry, and fancy colours. It was a time of developement for many social and marriage customs followed by brides today. This era between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Reformation was unique and through it all, faith was the ever-present catalyst for artistic, intellectual, social, and political developments. Medieval marriage was still the province of the Church, and the sacrament of matrimony was central to Christian doctrine.
Grooms, on the average, were much older than their brides. Noble women sometimes didn't marry until the age of 24, but this was rare. More than 3/4 were married before they reached 19. By today's standards, western Europe was inhabited by the young, with more than half of the population under 20 years of age.
Marriage during the Middle Ages
Weddings during medieval times saw the origin of several modern traditions and customs. There was more to the Middle Ages than just castles, chivalry, and fancy colours. It was a time of developement for many social and marriage customs followed by brides today. This era between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Reformation was unique and through it all, faith was the ever-present catalyst for artistic, intellectual, social, and political developments. Medieval marriage was still the province of the Church, and the sacrament of matrimony was central to Christian doctrine.
Grooms, on the average, were much older than their brides. Noble women sometimes didn't marry until the age of 24, but this was rare. More than 3/4 were married before they reached 19. By today's standards, western Europe was inhabited by the young, with more than half of the population under 20 years of age.
Marriage Laws during the Middle Ages
Marriage laws began to evolve during the Middle Ages. The Council of Westminster decreed in 1076 that no man should give his daughter or female relative to anyone without priestly blessing. Later councils would decree that marriage should not be secret but held in the open. But it wasn't until the 16th century Council of Trent that decreed a priest was required to perform the betrothal ceremony. Separation of couples was tolerated, but there was no legal divorce, though marriages between those too closely related could be annulled.
Wedding customs meant agreements or contracts were drawn up describing the rights of both the bride and groom. Medieval marriage ceremonies and celebrations depended largely on the social class of the bride and groom. Inheritance and property were usually two reasons why arranged marriages were contracted.
Medieval Beauty
Every part of a woman's face would be painted with some type of cosmetic, and many women during the Middle Ages would sun-bleach their hair. Medieval fashion prompted young women to pluck their hairline giving them a higher forehead. A wedding might be the one time a woman would wear her hair loose. Others would weave flowers into their hair to make a floral crown.
Bathing and Perfume
Medieval society actually liked to bathe. Hot baths were very popular and most towns as late as the mid-1200s had public bathhouses. But as forests were depleted, firewood became expensive and the rising costs of heating the water forced most of the bathhouses to close. Some tried burning coal to heat water, but the fumes proved to be unhealthy. By the mid-1300s, only the very wealthy could afford firewood for hot water in the winter. The rest of the population was forced to be dirty most of the time.
Perfumes made from the oils of flowers combined with spices were very popular during the Middle Ages as trade between countries improved. Perfume became an easy, quick fix for those who could not bathe.
Medieval Castle Weddings
Arranged marriages amongst the noble class would be decided when the future bride and groom were only 10 or 11 years old. Many would not meet until their wedding day 5 to 6 years later. Marriage meant sharing a lord's property or a noble name. Love wasn't often an issue, but it did occur. But usually the most important goal of marriage between nobles was continued success and the acquisition of wealth.
The feudal system of the time meant that wedding celebrations in a castle were not uncommon. In the early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church allowed ceremonies to take place outside the church, so long as the couple later had the union blessed by a priest later. Ceremonies may have taken place in the castle's Grand Hall, or perhaps in one of the courtyards.
The marriage day would include an incredible celebration with minstrels, jugglers and other entertainers. Inhabitants of the manor would attend as would other nobles and distant relatives. The lord of the castle might free prisoners to mark the occasion and beggars would gather at the gates to feast on leftover food.
Wedding Feasts and Food
Medieval wedding feasts celebrated the day no matter what social class the bride and groom came from. Some of the Middle Age food that could have been served at a feast include: Roast quail, turtledoves and partridge, goose, venison, roasted boar (sanglier), gilded and slivered calves' heads, fish, roasted peacock, mutton, cheeses, walnuts, fresh fruits, oysters steamed in almond milk, ale-flavored bread, stewed cabbage, tarts and custards, fresh fruit preserves and spicy mulled wine.
Apples were the only cultivated fruit, but others grew wild. Wild fruits like pears, quinces, and even peaches were served on some medieval tables. Strawberries raspberries, red currants could be found in the woods. Nobility could afford exotic foods like dates and pistachio nuts.
Many kinds of vegetables were known during the Middle Ages, but few were eaten. Vegetables of this period include: carrots, cabbage, lettuce, leeks, cardoons, onions, shallots, parsley and asparagus.
Feasts were elaborate, and it was not uncommon for banquets to serve up to six courses.
Spices and Flavorings
Middle Age spices used in cooking included: Cloves, cinnamon, saffron, mace, pepper, ginger, anise, and nutmeg. Food was seasoned with herbs like basil, parsley, sage, tansy, savory, betony, and rosemary. Sugar was becoming increasing popular during the Middle Ages, but it was expensive and only the wealthy could afford it in great quantities. Honey was still the sweetener of choice, usually supplied by the local monastery.
Wine, Ale, and other Medieval Drinks
Drinks during this period included water, ale, beer, mead, milk, and wine. Cider became increasingly popular, starting in the Basque country and moving northward. Fruit juices made from cherries, sloes, and mulberries may have been available, but most of them would have been fermented. Wine was believed to nourish the body, restore health, aid digestion, clarify ideas, open the arteries, cure melancholy and help in procreation.
Eating Etiquette
Guests at a medieval feast would eat with their fingers, though forks and sometimes a knife were used by some. Since little food could be preserved, the guests would eat until the food was gone. Napkins were becoming more popular. Glassware was becoming more widespread, and traditional bread trenchers were being replaced with wooden boards that had sections hollowed out to hold certain courses.
Medieval Dancing
Medieval feasts would usually be followed by hours of dancing to the accompaniment of vocal or instrumental music. Lords and ladies would "round dance" and "carol," and this was one of the chances young men had to meet damsels.
Romance, Love and Chivalry
"Courtly love" began to emerge during the 1100s starting in southern France. This was a code of behavior made popular through Romance literature, defined then as any prose written in one of the Romance languages. This term later evolved to include any tales of knights, chivalry and courtly love. Troubadours originally told these stories as they went from village to village, and later they were written down by court scribes, musicians, clerics and aristocrats. They were first used for edification of the noble classes but found popularity among the masses.
Romantic poetry and prose emphasized the ennobling power of love, the concept of "passionate," or inextinguishable love, and the elevation of the beloved woman to a superior position over her male suitor. This was a dramatic change in the cultural attitude toward noble women, though common women were still viewed mostly as property during the Middle Ages.
